1. Seeking the elusive NW Passage through the Arctic Ice The search for shipping routes through the Arctic Ice, both eastwards and westwards, to Cathay and the Spice Islands, was driven by Politics and Commerce. The challenges stimulated heroic efforts, but with huge loss of life. 2. The Tsars needed a NE Passage to serve their Huge Country During the winter months, Russia’s ships were restricted in reaching ice-free waters from the Black sea and the Baltic. this limited their Navy and Trade. The pioneering efforts made along the Siberian coast are little known. 3. The Race to the South Pole Cook and other Explorers probed into the Antarctic before Amundsen went to the South Pole and returned safely. Scott, the naval officer, led his men to the Pole. Despite heroic efforts, all five perished on the way back. 4. When all Hope is Gone, Pray for Shackleton In 1915, Shackleton’s ‘Endurance’ was crushed by the Antarctic ice. He led 28 men for 8 months on the ice-flows. Then sailed 800 miles for help. Everyone was saved. Surely a Supreme Achievement?